The Neo-Classical Period (1660-1798)

The Age of Reason emphasizing order, logic, and classical forms in literature

neo-classical augustan pope dryden swift age-of-reason literary-periods

(Also known as The Age of Reason, The Augustan Age)

The term “Neo-Classical” (New Classical) defines a period in English literature that turned away from the imaginative exuberance of the Renaissance and instead admired and imitated the literature of classical Greece and Rome. This era valued order, reason, restraint, logic, and correctness. While the Renaissance was inspired by the classics, the Neo-Classical writers sought to emulate them, following their rules and forms.

The period begins sharply in 1660 with the Restoration of the monarchy and ends in 1798 with the publication of Wordsworth and Coleridge’s Lyrical Ballads, which officially launched the Romantic Age.

Context and Influences

  • The Restoration (1660): After eleven years of sober Puritan rule, the monarchy was restored with King Charles II. Charles and his court, returning from exile in France, brought back French sophistication, wit, and a reaction against Puritan severity. The theatres were reopened, leading to a new kind of cynical and witty drama.
  • The Age of Reason / The Enlightenment: The dominant intellectual movement across Europe. It championed reason, logic, and scientific observation as the primary tools for understanding the world. Thinkers like John Locke argued that the universe operated according to rational, understandable laws. Emotional excess and religious fanaticism were viewed with suspicion.
  • Rise of the Middle Class: A wealthy and literate middle class emerged, centered in London. This new audience demanded literature that was realistic and relatable, leading directly to the rise of the novel and journalism (periodical essays).

Key Characteristics of Neo-Classical Literature

  • Emphasis on Reason and Logic: Literature was expected to be rational, logical, and clear. As Alexander Pope wrote, “True Wit is Nature to advantage drest, / What oft was thought, but ne’er so well exprest.”
  • Didacticism: Writers believed literature should instruct as well as delight. Its purpose was to teach moral lessons and correct social vices.
  • Satire: This was the most important literary tool of the age. By making vice and folly ridiculous, satirists aimed to reform individuals and society.
  • Value for Order and Clarity: The style was precise, polished, and elegant.
  • Heroic Couplet: This became the dominant poetic form, perfected by John Dryden and Alexander Pope.

    Note: What is a Heroic Couplet?

    A heroic couplet consists of two rhyming lines of iambic pentameter, usually expressing a complete, self-contained thought. It is “heroic” because in England it was first used for epic or heroic poetry. Its balance and polish made it the perfect vehicle for the Neo-Classical ideals of order and reason.

Sub-Periods and Authors

The Neo-Classical Period is divided into three distinct phases.

1. The Restoration Period (1660–1700)

(Also known as The Age of Dryden)

This phase is known for its reaction against Puritanism and is most famous for its cynical and witty Comedy of Manners. John Dryden was the dominant literary figure.

  • Restoration Drama:

    • Comedy of Manners: These plays satirized the artificial manners, amoral intrigues, and sexual liaisons of the upper class. The plots revolve around witty dialogue (repartee) and the conflict between clever “wits” and foolish “fops.”
      • William Congreve: The master of the genre. Key Work: The Way of the World.
      • William Wycherley: Key Work: The Country Wife.
      • George Etherege: Introduced the genre. Key Work: The Man of Mode.
    • Heroic Tragedy: A form of tragedy written in heroic couplets, featuring larger-than-life heroes and themes of epic love and honor. John Dryden was its main practitioner (All for Love).

  • Restoration Poetry:

    • John Dryden: Appointed England’s first Poet Laureate in 1668. He was a master of the heroic couplet and a brilliant satirist.
      • Key Works: Absalom and Achitophel (a powerful political satire), Mac Flecknoe (a personal mock-heroic satire against the poet Thomas Shadwell).
    • Samuel Butler: Famous for Hudibras, a long, satirical poem mocking the Puritans.

  • Restoration Prose:

    • John Bunyan: A Puritan writer who wrote the famous religious allegory The Pilgrim’s Progress while in prison.

2. The Augustan Age (1700–1745)

(Also known as The Age of Pope)

This is the high point of Neo-Classicism. The name draws a parallel to the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus, a time of great literary achievement with writers like Virgil and Horace.

  • Augustan Poetry:

    • Alexander Pope: The central poet of the age and the undisputed master of the heroic couplet. His poetry is witty, satirical, and perfectly polished.

  • Augustan Prose: The “Age of Prose and Reason”:

    • The Rise of the Novel: This period saw the birth of the English novel, catering to the new middle-class readership.
      • Daniel Defoe: A pioneer of the realistic novel. Key Works: Robinson Crusoe, Moll Flanders.
      • Samuel Richardson: Known for the epistolary novel. Key Works: Pamela, Clarissa.
      • Henry Fielding: Wrote in reaction to Richardson’s sentimentality. Key Works: Joseph Andrews (a parody of Pamela), and his masterpiece Tom Jones.
    • Periodical Essays: A new prose form published in magazines and journals.
      • Joseph Addison and Richard Steele: They created influential periodicals like The Tatler and The Spectator. The character of Sir Roger de Coverley from The Spectator was especially famous.
    • Jonathan Swift: One of the greatest satirists in English. His satire is darker and more biting than Pope’s.

3. The Age of Sensibility (1745–1798)

(Also known as The Age of Johnson or The Age of Transition)

This is a transitional period. While Neo-Classical ideals of reason still dominated, there was a growing emphasis on emotion, sentiment, and individual experience, which paved the way for Romanticism.

  • Dr. Samuel Johnson: The dominant literary figure. A poet, critic, essayist, and lexicographer.

    • Key Works: A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets, and Rasselas.
    • James Boswell’s Life of Samuel Johnson (1791) is considered the greatest biography in English.

  • The Rise of the Novel (Continued):

    • Laurence Sterne: Tristram Shandy (an experimental, unconventional novel).
    • Oliver Goldsmith: The Vicar of Wakefield.
    • Tobias Smollett: Roderick Random.

  • Pre-Romantic Trends (The Seeds of Romanticism):

    • The Graveyard School: A group of poets who wrote sad, reflective poems about death, mortality, and rural life. Their melancholic tone was a departure from Neo-Classical wit.
      • Thomas Gray: His Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751) is the most famous poem of this school.
      • Edward Young: Night-Thoughts.
    • The Gothic Novel: A genre that emerged as a rebellion against rationalism, focusing on terror, mystery, and the supernatural.
      • Horace Walpole: The Castle of Otranto (1764) is considered the first Gothic novel.
      • Ann Radcliffe: Master of the “Gothic of Terror” (The Mysteries of Udolpho).

(The publication of Lyrical Ballads in 1798 marks the definitive end of the Neo-Classical era and the beginning of the Romantic Period.)

Summary for Quick Revision:

The Neo-Classical Period (1660-1798), or Age of Reason/Augustan Age, admired and imitated classical Greek and Roman literature, valuing order, reason, restraint, and correctness. It began with the Restoration (1660) and ended with Lyrical Ballads (1798). Influenced by the Enlightenment and the rise of the middle class, its literature emphasized reason, didacticism, satire, and the heroic couplet. Sub-periods include:

  1. The Restoration Period (1660-1700): (Age of Dryden) Reaction against Puritanism, known for cynical Comedy of Manners (Congreve, Wycherley) and Heroic Tragedy. John Dryden was dominant in poetry (Absalom and Achitophel) and prose.
  2. The Augustan Age (1700-1745): (Age of Pope) High point of Neo-Classicism. Alexander Pope mastered the heroic couplet (The Rape of the Lock). Saw the birth of the English novel (Defoe, Richardson, Fielding) and periodical essays (Addison, Steele). Jonathan Swift was a major satirist (Gulliver’s Travels).
  3. The Age of Sensibility (1745-1798): (Age of Johnson/Transition) Transitional period with growing emphasis on emotion. Dr. Samuel Johnson was dominant. Pre-Romantic trends like the Graveyard School (Thomas Gray) and Gothic Novel (Horace Walpole) emerged. This period paved the way for Romanticism.
Next: The Romantic Period (c. 1798-1837)